When we say that something is “set in stone,” we mean permanence, immutability, and eternity. The ancient Romans were likely guided by similar ideas when they chose stone to commemorate important people and events. Across the Roman Empire, inscriptions – texts carved into durable materials – were a common feature of the landscape, from cities and small towns to roadside cemeteries. Words were etched onto stelae, statue bases, buildings, and tombstones. Thanks to their durability, many have outlived the civilization that produced them. Today, they are a rich source of knowledge for archaeologists and historians.
The in-depth study of these monuments falls within Roman epigraphy – the study of inscriptions. Epigraphists analyze not only the texts themselves, but also the location and function of the objects on which they appear. Until now, research has focused primarily on who commissioned inscriptions, who their intended audience was, and what they reveal about public offices or the workings of the state. Researchers at the University of Warsaw propose a radically different approach: to focus on the artisans – the individuals who, with chisel and hammer in hand, directly shaped the appearance and form of these stone monuments.
Dr. Paweł Nowakowski has received a prestigious Starting Grant from the European Research Council (ERC) to carry out the project Masters of the stone: The stonecutters’ workshops and the rise of late antique epigraphic cultures (third–fifth Century AD), worth nearly €1.5 million. The project aims to examine in detail the transformation of epigraphic traditions in the Roman Empire and the emergence of the so-called epigraphic cultures of Late Antiquity.
Why study stone?
As the project members argue, carving inscriptions into stone is a custom that is “distinctively” Roman. Inscriptions were known to all ancient peoples, but it was the Romans who popularized them on an unprecedented scale. At the same time, there are many gaps in the study of ancient epigraphy, especially when considering the perspective of artisanal craftsmanship – which has been explored only to a limited extent so far.
“Analysis of changes in the style of commemorations from the perspective of their creators can be just as important for understanding Roman history as research on the painting techniques of Greek vases has been for understanding the Archaic and Classical periods,” argues Dr. Paweł Nowakowski.
The period of interest to the project participants falls between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE. During this time, the number of inscriptions in some regions of Rome declined dramatically. The shape, form, and decoration of the inscriptions gradually began to change. The epigraphic tradition fragmented, with inscriptions taking on different shapes depending on the region they were found in. According to Dr. Nowakowski, stonecutters’ workshops played a key role in this process.
“They operated similarly to modern funeral homes: they not only offered carved inscriptions but also advised clients on appropriate forms and styles. Even ‘product catalogs’, collections of formulas and templates from which clients could choose appropriate gravestone sayings, have survived to this day,” says the researcher.
In ancient Roman culture, gravestone inscriptions held particular significance. Romans buried their dead in places accessible to passersby, for example, along main roads leading to cities. The words carved on gravestones were intended to inspire contemplation among passersby and thus guarantee immortality for those who could afford such a burial. Epigraphists previously assumed that gravestone inscriptions were a direct reflection of the will of their benefactors, who came from wealthy and influential elites. However, according to historians from the University of Warsaw, the stonecutters themselves, as specialists, could consciously shape the content and aesthetics of the inscriptions, adapting them to changing tastes.
“Although the mentality of the ancients was very different from ours, some behaviors remain similar. They placed great importance on creating their own image (self-presentation). And a lavish tomb spoke volumes about them even after death. Who could have known this better than the stonecutters? Artisans, just as today, carried out commissions not only for the wealthy and influential. Their clients also included less affluent citizens, those on the lower rungs of the Empire’s social ladder. Stonecutters drew inspiration for inscriptions for less affluent clients from commissions completed for the wealthy. They served as ‘cultural filters’ – adapting artistic and literary innovations to the perceptive and financial capabilities of the middle and lower classes,” explains Dr. Nowakowski.
The historian emphasizes that the study aims to determine the role artisans played in cultural change. He also hopes it will help understand how local communities constructed their own, small-scale histories. Moreover, public commemoration in the form of stone inscriptions has become a universal European standard, so this can help to better design commemorations in the culturally diverse environments of Europe today.
Atlas of stonecutters’ workshops
The ambition of Dr. Paweł Nowakowski is to ensure the immortality of those who carved inscriptions in stone centuries ago. Dr. Nowakowski is forming a team to develop the Atlas of stonecutters’ workshops. It is intended to be an advanced digital tool for collecting data on decorative styles and typefaces, signatures, stonemason marks, stone trade routes, and other elements that allow for the identification of large and small workshops involved in the production of inscriptions.
“We plan to collect all surviving records of stonecutters, mosaicists, and their workshops. We then want to group the collected material and place it on a map. We hope this will help us show the artisans as participants in a top-to-bottom cultural transfer, from elites to ordinary people,” explains Dr. Nowakowski.
Developing the atlas of stonecutters’ workshops is one of the project’s priorities. The researcher intends to leverage advances in Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities is a collaboration between the humanities and technology – a combination of research and communication practices using IT tools. In recent years, this approach has significantly contributed to the development of epigraphic research. For example, the website of the late Prof. Manfred Clauss, EDCS – Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss / Slaby, which focuses on documenting Latin inscriptions from across the Empire, contains information on approximately 540,000 inscriptions (mainly in Latin).
The researchers anticipate that the Atlas will allow for the identification of regional centers of inscription production and their commercial connections – which could shed new light on workshops as centers of cultural exchange. The introduction of the category of “agents of top-to-bottom cultural transfer” will enable the study of how patterns of elite culture permeated the middle and lower classes through the activities of artisans. The STONE-MASTERS project demonstrates how modern science can utilize innovative tools and approaches to expand our knowledge of ancient times. Dr. Nowakowski and his team have the opportunity not only to solve one of the greatest mysteries of Roman epigraphy but also to better understand how the culture of commemoration arose and evolved in the past – and the social mechanisms that guided this process.
The article was originally published in Polish on the Serwis Naukowy UW website on April 2, 2025.
